• The biological hierarchy of organisation starts at the simplest level to the most complex.
• These are the atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem and biosphere.
• The biosphere is the largest and most complex, it includes all environments inhabited by life.
• The atom, molecule and macromolecule are chemistry.
• Cytology or cell biology includes organelle and cells.
• There are many related studies to cytology, these include, microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms) and molecular genetics (the study of genetic material).
• Tissues are the study of histology.
• Anatomy and physiology include the next three levels, organ, organ system and organism.
• Population is covered by population genetics, paleontology and evolutionary biology.
• Population genetics is the study of the inheritance between generations of organisms.
• Evolutionary biology is the study of populations and species throughout time.
• Paleontology studies extinct species.
• The community, ecosystem and biosphere are covered in the study of ecology.
• There are many other studies in biology.
• All matter is made from chemical elements.
• An atom is the smallest piece of an element.
• Atoms come together to form molecules.
• Some molecules are small, but molecules such as fat, DNA, starch and proteins are large. These are referred to as macromolecules.
• Atoms, molecules and macromolecules are the building materials that living organisms need to remain alive, they provide the nutrients needed.
• When macromolecules come together they can form organelles.
• Organelles perform tasks inside the cells.
• Cells are the first level considered to be alive, they contain a combination of organelles necessary to support life.
• Cells form tissues which have a common function.
• Organs are formed from tissues that unite and perform at least one function, eg. Lungs, heart and liver.
• Many organs together form organ systems, they all have an overall function, eg the digestive system, the circulatory system and the skeletal system.
• The levels higher than individual organisms are population, community and ecosystem.
• Populations are a group of organisms who belong to the same species.
• Community’s are different species who live in the same area.
• Ecosystems are the interactions between the community and all the non living aspects, e.g. water and sunlight.
Basic Biological Principles
• The cell is the lowest level that can perform all activities necessary for life and reproduction.
• All organisims are made of cells.
• Singled celled organisms are called unicellular.
• Organisms made up of multiple cells are called multicellular.
• Both unicellular and multicellular have the ability for the cells to divide and form new cells.
• All cells use DNA as the chemical material of genes.
• All cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
• Prokaryotic means “before the nucleus.” They lack the internal membranes and are unicellular.
• Bateria are prokaryotic.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, which encloses the DNA.
• Form fits functions – All organisms have certain structures to allow them to perform their tasks. The shape and organisation of a part reflects what it does and the job the part has will reflect the structure of the part.
• Living organisms have many mechanisms to maintain a constant internal environment, which keeps the organism alive, this is called homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is a negative feedback system to keep balance so the organism remains in optimal health
• Only reproduction allows species to pass on their genes.
• Inheritance is the total amount of genetic characters passed from parent to offspring.
• Genes are made form DNA, which stores information.
• Every cell in your body has a copy of all the DNA inherited from your parents.
• Cells make copies of DNA before they divide and pass this information on to the cells it produces.
• In reproduction the DNA is passed on to the offspring by the egg cell combining with the sperm cell which results in a fertilized cell containg both parents DNA.
Interaction with the Environment
• All organisms interact with the environment, living and nonliving components.
• E.g. a tree
o The roots absorb water and minerals from the soil.
o Leaves absorb carbon dioxide.
o The tree releases oxygen into the air.
o It’s roots break up rocks which help form soil.
Life Requires Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work. All living organisms use it.
• Energy is used by cells to allow them to perform all their tasks.
• The chemical ractions that happen in the cells are called its metabolism.
• Photosynthesis is cells that have the ability to harness the power of the sun and convert it into chemical energy in sugars.
• The cells that can’t perform photosynthesis get their energy from the photosynthetic cells.
• Photosynthetic organisms are called producers. The energy procucers make flows to the consumers (animals).
• The animals either eat the plants directly or indirectly, by eating other animals who have eaten the plants.
• To save on energy many molecules are reused by breaking them down into atoms and rebuilding them into other molecules over an over.
Adaptation and Evolution
• Camouflage is an example of evolutionary adaptation.
• Adaptation is a trait that’s inherited to help with the survival and reproduction of an organism.
• The combinations of a species inherited genes vary, individuals with the more helpful variations may live longer and produce more offspring. This is called natural selection.
• Evolution means “a process of change.”
Unity and Diversity
• Biologists have names and identified about 1.8 million species.
o 290,000 types of plants
o 52,000 kinds of vertebrates (animals with backbones)
o 1,000,000 kinds of insects
• There is unity under all the diversity. DNA is universal and natural selection is another.
Grouping Life
• Similar species are grouped together.
• There are three domains, Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya.
• Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea are two very different organisms which have prokaryotic cells.
• Domain Eukarya are organisms with eukaryotic cells.
• Domain Eukarya are grouped into four kingdoms,
o Kingdom Protista
o Plantae
o Fungi
o Animalia
Monday, July 5, 2010
How common cooking methods affect the loss of vitamin C
Introduction
Controlled
1. First prepare the iodine indicator solution:
a. In saucepan mix 1 tablespoon of cornflour using a wooden spoon, into enough water to make a paste.
b. Add 250mL of water to the paste. Boil for 5 minutes, pour into measuring jug.
c. Add 10 drops (with one eyedropper) of cornflour mixture to 75mL (syringe) of water in the 200mL small glass.
d. Slowly add 6 drops of iodine to achieve a dark purple-blue colour.
2. Then prepare the vitamin C indicator colours for colour indicator sheet. (This step was repeated later to create four more colour indicators).
a. Crush four vitamin C tablets between 2 teaspoons into four separate bowls.
b. Add 10ml of water with syringe to each, wait to dissolve. Each bowl will contain 100mg of vitamin C in 10ml of water.
c. On lined paper calculate how to change 100mg of vitamin C into percentages of 97mg (the content of vitamin C in 100g of raw broccoli),
i. For 25% - 97 ÷ 100 x 25 = 24.25 (2.43ml)
ii. For 50% - 97 ÷ 100 x 50 = 48.50 (4.85ml)
iii. For 75% - 97 ÷ 100 x 75 = 72.75 (7.28ml)
iv. For 100% - 97 ÷ 100 x 100 = 97.00 (9.70ml)
d. Use syringe to remove the above amounts (in bold) from glass bowls (vitamin C tablets) into four of the 150ml plastic containers, label each with its percentage. Wash syringe.
e. Top each container up with water to equal a total of 10ml. Use the syringe to add the following amounts in bold to vitamin C.
i. 25% - 10 – 2.43 = 7.57ml of water
ii. 50% - 10 – 4.85 = 5.15ml of water
iii. 75% - 10 – 7.28 = 2.72ml of water
iv. 100% - 10 – 9.70 = 0.30ml of water
f. Now each percentage of vitamin C is ready to test with the iodine indicator solution.
g. .In four different 150ml plastic containers (labeled 25%, 50%, 75% & 100%) add 10ml (with syringe) of iodine indicator solution in each (from small 200mL glass).
h. With eyedropper, add 10 drops of vitamin C (tablet and water mixture) from each percentage container into corresponding percentage container.
i. Take photos of each different shade (don’t forget to label photos). This is your colour indicator sheet.
3. Test broccoli. The testing process is complete three times (for each cooking method, including the raw sample). Add each result together and divide by 3, this will give you an overall average result.
a. Cut 100g of broccoli off of bunch, cut into even pieces.
b. Cook for 5 minutes.
i. Steam in saucepan steamer with 500mL water.
ii. Boil in saucepan with 2000mL water.
iii. Or, microwave in microwave steamer with 80mL water.
c. Place broccoli into large bowl. With hand blender blend to form puree (add 50mL of water to form liquid).
d. In a small 150mL plastic container add 10mL (with syringe) of iodine indicator solution.
e. With eyedropper add 10 drops of the liquid broccoli to iodine indicator solution.
f. Compare with colour indicator sheet to find closest colour and corresponding percentage. This is the percentage of vitamin C left in the broccoli.
g. Repeat steps d to f with the water the broccoli was cooked in.
4. Repeat step 3 with each cooking method and one raw sample (skip b).
Results
Each cooking method was performed three times to obtain average data. The raw sample was also tested three times. The results obtain from each of the three tests were added together and divided by three.
The above experiment investigated the optimal cooking method to retain vitamin C in broccoli. The results were as predicted, with the microwave being the most effective method. Although the tests on the water were invalid, the results from the broccoli alone are reliable enough to be valid. Overall the results support my hypothesis, however further tests measuring other vegetables would be needed to observe how their vitamin C content reacts to these cooking methods.
References
Bender, D.A. (2005). Cooking, loss of nutrients, a dictionary of food and nutrition. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O39-cookinglossofnutrients.html
Brown, A. (2008). Understanding food, principles & preparation. Belmont, CA. Thomson Wadsworth
Effects of cooking on foods (Health and Yoga.com). [n.d.]. Retrieved from http://www.healthandyoga.com/html/food/effect.html
Learn about food and health, Science Made Simple. (2006). Do different varieties of the same fruit have the same level of vitamin C?. Retrieved from http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/nutrition_projects.html
Nutrition Data, know what you eat. (2009). Foods highest in vitamin C. Retrieved from http://www.nutritiondata.com/foods-011101000000000000000-w.html
Senson, C. (2002, July 2). Boiling veggies too long causes vitamin loss; Nutrition. The Hamilton Spectator. Retrieved from http://kx7gx4pm8t.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Boiling+veggies+too+long+causes+vitamin+loss%3B+Nutrition&rft.jtitle=The+Spectator&rft.au=Christine+Senson&rft.date=2002-07-02&rft.issn=1189-9417&rft.spage=E.09&rft.externalDBID=UALI&rft.externalDocID=451758171
Stewart, C.P. (1946). Proceedings of the nutrition society: Cambridge University Press. (4), 164-165
Thompson, K. (2002, April 4). Research has green appeal - project increases vitamin C in broccoli. The Toronto Star.
Appendix
Vitamin C Remaining in Broccoli
Cooking Method Time cooked (minutes) Amount of water used (mL) Amount of broccoli (grams) Test One Results Test Two Results Test Three Results Average
Raw/none 0 0 100 60 62.5 60 60.83
Steaming 5 500 100 85 75 75 78.33
Boiling 5 2000 100 60 55 70 61.67
Microwave 5 80 100 95 87.5 95 92.50
Amount of Vitamin C in Water
Cooking Method Time cooked (minutes) Amount of water used (mL) Amount of broccoli (grams) Test One Results Test Two Results Test Three Results Average
Raw/none 0 0 100 n/a n/a n/a n/a
Steaming 5 500 100 30 25 20 25.00
Boiling 5 2000 100 35 25 20 26.67
Microwave 5 80 100 70 70 95 78.33
During the cooking process vitamins can escape into the water through cut surfaces, as well as be destroyed by heat (Senson, 2002). The most vulnerable vitamins are those which dissolve easily in water (water-soluble), such as: vitamin C and B complex (Brown, 2008). Water-soluble vitamins are released when juices from vegetables leach out while cooking; however, the amount of juices lost depends on the temperature (Stewart, 1946). The surface area to volume ratio also determines the total vitamin loss (Bender, 2005).
Vitamin C is the most susceptible vitamin, being extremely vulnerable to air, temperature and water. Cutting vegetables can cause vitamin C to be lost due to oxygen exposure. Also washing vegetables can remove water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C (Health and yoga.com, n.d.). However knowing how to prepare and cook vegetables containing vitamin C can reduce the amount lost during this process.
Aim
Vitamin C is the most susceptible vitamin, being extremely vulnerable to air, temperature and water. Cutting vegetables can cause vitamin C to be lost due to oxygen exposure. Also washing vegetables can remove water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C (Health and yoga.com, n.d.). However knowing how to prepare and cook vegetables containing vitamin C can reduce the amount lost during this process.
Aim
The aim of this experiment is to determine which cooking method is optimal to retain the highest content of vitamins;
o boiling,
o steaming, or
o microwave steaming
To do this an indicator solution will be made from cornflour, water and iodine. When vitamin C is added to this solution it reacts and loses colour. The amount of colour lost depends on how much vitamin C is added.
Broccoli was selected because of its high vitamin C content, containing 97mg per 100g in both the stem and florets (Thompson, 2002). Because vitamin C is water-soluble it is predicted that the smaller the amount of water used to cook the broccoli, the more vitamin C will remain. Knowing this, because the microwave method uses the least amount of water, it is likely to be the most effective way to cook the broccoli.
Hypothesis
o boiling,
o steaming, or
o microwave steaming
To do this an indicator solution will be made from cornflour, water and iodine. When vitamin C is added to this solution it reacts and loses colour. The amount of colour lost depends on how much vitamin C is added.
Broccoli was selected because of its high vitamin C content, containing 97mg per 100g in both the stem and florets (Thompson, 2002). Because vitamin C is water-soluble it is predicted that the smaller the amount of water used to cook the broccoli, the more vitamin C will remain. Knowing this, because the microwave method uses the least amount of water, it is likely to be the most effective way to cook the broccoli.
Hypothesis
Using common cooking methods: boiling, steaming and microwave steaming; the microwave is the most effective method for cooking broccoli to minimise vitamin C loss.
Variables
Variables
Independent
• Different cooking methods,
o Microwave steaming.
o Stove top steaming.
o Stove top boiling.
o Microwave steaming.
o Stove top steaming.
o Stove top boiling.
Dependent
• The amount of vitamin C left in broccoli after cooking.
• The amount of vitamin C that escapes into the water.
These are both shown by the loss of colour saturation when added to the iodine indicator solution.
• The amount of vitamin C that escapes into the water.
These are both shown by the loss of colour saturation when added to the iodine indicator solution.
Controlled
• 100g broccoli (raw).
• 100g broccoli (steamed).
• 100g broccoli (boiled).
• 100g broccoli (microwaved).
• 5 minute cooking time for each.
• Stovetop steamer and saucepan.
• The same element is used for each test (stove top steaming and boiling).
• Microwave and microwave steamer.
• Iodine indicator solution.
• Glass bowls and small plastic containers.
• Hand blender and large bowl.
• Glass measuring jug.
• Eye dropper and syringe.
• Vitamin C colour indicator sheet.
Materials
• 100g broccoli (steamed).
• 100g broccoli (boiled).
• 100g broccoli (microwaved).
• 5 minute cooking time for each.
• Stovetop steamer and saucepan.
• The same element is used for each test (stove top steaming and boiling).
• Microwave and microwave steamer.
• Iodine indicator solution.
• Glass bowls and small plastic containers.
• Hand blender and large bowl.
• Glass measuring jug.
• Eye dropper and syringe.
• Vitamin C colour indicator sheet.
Materials
• 6 heads of broccoli (approximately 300g each)
• Iodine indicator solution
o Cornflour, water and iodine solution (from pharmacy).
• 4 small glass bowls (175mL each)
• 10 square plastic containers with lids (150mL each)
• 1 packet of Herron Vita Minis for kids100mg vitamin C tablets (50pk)
• 1 glass 500ml measuring jug
• 1 standard set of measuring spoons (must have 20mL tablespoon)
• 1 1000W microwave (Samsung)
• 1 stainless steel saucepan steamer (min, 2L capacity)
• 1 gas oven/stovetop
• 1 hand blender (Solutions)
• 1 large heat resistant plastic spoon with holes (to remove broccoli after boiling).
• 1 wooden spoon (to mix cornflour solution and to mix broccoli into boiling water).
• Matches, if needed to light stove (1pk 50, Home Brand).
• Paper towels, for clean up and broccoli samples (1 roll).
• 1 small plastic microwave steamer (1L)
• 2 1mL eyedroppers
• 1 10mL syringe
• 1 large dessert bowl (use to blend broccoli in).
• 1 kitchen timer
• 1 SLR digital camera (Nikon D40x)
• 1 tripod
• 2 A3 pieces of plain white paper (use as a neutral background for photos).
• 1 A4 piece of line paper (recording data).
• Kitchen scales (2kg)
• Post-its for labeling (1 pad).
• 4 standard stainless steel teaspoons (vitamin C tablet crushing).
• 1 pen
• 1 small clear glass (200ml)
Method
• Iodine indicator solution
o Cornflour, water and iodine solution (from pharmacy).
• 4 small glass bowls (175mL each)
• 10 square plastic containers with lids (150mL each)
• 1 packet of Herron Vita Minis for kids100mg vitamin C tablets (50pk)
• 1 glass 500ml measuring jug
• 1 standard set of measuring spoons (must have 20mL tablespoon)
• 1 1000W microwave (Samsung)
• 1 stainless steel saucepan steamer (min, 2L capacity)
• 1 gas oven/stovetop
• 1 hand blender (Solutions)
• 1 large heat resistant plastic spoon with holes (to remove broccoli after boiling).
• 1 wooden spoon (to mix cornflour solution and to mix broccoli into boiling water).
• Matches, if needed to light stove (1pk 50, Home Brand).
• Paper towels, for clean up and broccoli samples (1 roll).
• 1 small plastic microwave steamer (1L)
• 2 1mL eyedroppers
• 1 10mL syringe
• 1 large dessert bowl (use to blend broccoli in).
• 1 kitchen timer
• 1 SLR digital camera (Nikon D40x)
• 1 tripod
• 2 A3 pieces of plain white paper (use as a neutral background for photos).
• 1 A4 piece of line paper (recording data).
• Kitchen scales (2kg)
• Post-its for labeling (1 pad).
• 4 standard stainless steel teaspoons (vitamin C tablet crushing).
• 1 pen
• 1 small clear glass (200ml)
Method
1. First prepare the iodine indicator solution:
a. In saucepan mix 1 tablespoon of cornflour using a wooden spoon, into enough water to make a paste.
b. Add 250mL of water to the paste. Boil for 5 minutes, pour into measuring jug.
c. Add 10 drops (with one eyedropper) of cornflour mixture to 75mL (syringe) of water in the 200mL small glass.
d. Slowly add 6 drops of iodine to achieve a dark purple-blue colour.
2. Then prepare the vitamin C indicator colours for colour indicator sheet. (This step was repeated later to create four more colour indicators).
a. Crush four vitamin C tablets between 2 teaspoons into four separate bowls.
b. Add 10ml of water with syringe to each, wait to dissolve. Each bowl will contain 100mg of vitamin C in 10ml of water.
c. On lined paper calculate how to change 100mg of vitamin C into percentages of 97mg (the content of vitamin C in 100g of raw broccoli),
i. For 25% - 97 ÷ 100 x 25 = 24.25 (2.43ml)
ii. For 50% - 97 ÷ 100 x 50 = 48.50 (4.85ml)
iii. For 75% - 97 ÷ 100 x 75 = 72.75 (7.28ml)
iv. For 100% - 97 ÷ 100 x 100 = 97.00 (9.70ml)
d. Use syringe to remove the above amounts (in bold) from glass bowls (vitamin C tablets) into four of the 150ml plastic containers, label each with its percentage. Wash syringe.
e. Top each container up with water to equal a total of 10ml. Use the syringe to add the following amounts in bold to vitamin C.
i. 25% - 10 – 2.43 = 7.57ml of water
ii. 50% - 10 – 4.85 = 5.15ml of water
iii. 75% - 10 – 7.28 = 2.72ml of water
iv. 100% - 10 – 9.70 = 0.30ml of water
f. Now each percentage of vitamin C is ready to test with the iodine indicator solution.
g. .In four different 150ml plastic containers (labeled 25%, 50%, 75% & 100%) add 10ml (with syringe) of iodine indicator solution in each (from small 200mL glass).
h. With eyedropper, add 10 drops of vitamin C (tablet and water mixture) from each percentage container into corresponding percentage container.
i. Take photos of each different shade (don’t forget to label photos). This is your colour indicator sheet.
3. Test broccoli. The testing process is complete three times (for each cooking method, including the raw sample). Add each result together and divide by 3, this will give you an overall average result.
a. Cut 100g of broccoli off of bunch, cut into even pieces.
b. Cook for 5 minutes.
i. Steam in saucepan steamer with 500mL water.
ii. Boil in saucepan with 2000mL water.
iii. Or, microwave in microwave steamer with 80mL water.
c. Place broccoli into large bowl. With hand blender blend to form puree (add 50mL of water to form liquid).
d. In a small 150mL plastic container add 10mL (with syringe) of iodine indicator solution.
e. With eyedropper add 10 drops of the liquid broccoli to iodine indicator solution.
f. Compare with colour indicator sheet to find closest colour and corresponding percentage. This is the percentage of vitamin C left in the broccoli.
g. Repeat steps d to f with the water the broccoli was cooked in.
4. Repeat step 3 with each cooking method and one raw sample (skip b).
Results
Each cooking method was performed three times to obtain average data. The raw sample was also tested three times. The results obtain from each of the three tests were added together and divided by three.
The results show that steaming broccoli causes a vitamin C loss of 22%, boiling loses 38% and cooking broccoli in the microwave only loses 7%.
The comparisons between the results from each of the three tests carried out show that each test was consistent, as each percentage does not differ anymore than 25%. The patterns in figure 4 show that almost all the results drop in test 2 and rise again in test 3. This can’t be due to the different heads of broccoli used because the raw sample remains almost the same in each test. The reason could be due to differences in the pieces of broccoli after being cut. As mentioned earlier, the greater the cut surface area, the greater the loss of water-soluble vitamins (Senson, 2002). This is where it becomes very important to ensure broccoli is cut as evenly as possible.
Discussion
The comparisons between the results from each of the three tests carried out show that each test was consistent, as each percentage does not differ anymore than 25%. The patterns in figure 4 show that almost all the results drop in test 2 and rise again in test 3. This can’t be due to the different heads of broccoli used because the raw sample remains almost the same in each test. The reason could be due to differences in the pieces of broccoli after being cut. As mentioned earlier, the greater the cut surface area, the greater the loss of water-soluble vitamins (Senson, 2002). This is where it becomes very important to ensure broccoli is cut as evenly as possible.
Discussion
The reason more vitamin C is lost during the boiling method is due to its water-solubility. Usually no more than 75% is lost during boiling (Brown, 2008), although this may also depend on cooking time as heat can also destroy vitamins. The raw sample outcome was unexpected. Considering broccoli contains 97mg of vitamin C per 100g the result should have been close to 100%, instead it measured at around 60%. The possible reason for this may be due to an enzyme called ascorbic oxidase. When certain vegetables are broken down excessively, ascorbic oxidase is released and destroys vitamin C rapidly (Huang, Wahlqvist & Worsley, 1987).
As seen in figure 3 the total vitamin C found does not add up to 100%, this shows that the water measurements are not valid. However they are reliable, as each repeated tests resulted in a similar percentage. The steaming and boiling methods did come close, but the error was failing to consider the different amounts of water used, and how this would impact the results. The microwave method used a much smaller amount of water (80mL) compared with steaming (500mL) and boiling (2000mL). This shows the microwave water was much more concentrated in vitamin C. Adding less water to the iodine indicator solution when testing may overcome this problem. Another, and probably more effective solution, would be to use equal amounts of water in each cooking method.
One of the major difficulties during the experiment was the accuracy of recording the vitamin C loss. Relying on how much colour is lost from the iodine indicator solution (shades of purple) doesn’t provide any way of plotting the results on a graph. To solve this problem a colour indication sheet was produced. Using children’s vitamin C tablets containing100mg of vitamin C per tablet, four colour indications were made: 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. This colour indicator sheet worked well, however it still lacked accuracy. This problem was solved by creating four more colour indications: 12.5%, 37.5%, 62.5% and 87.5%.
Another problem encountered was when making the iodine indicator solution. The instructions stated to add 10 drops of the cornflour and water mixture (after boiling) to 75ml of water. This did not work, as each time a drop of cornflour mixture fell into the water it formed into a solid ball. The mixture also formed in to a solid jelly-like substance if left to cool. This problem was overcome this by adding the cornflour mixture first, and then slowly pouring in warm water.
Conclusion
As seen in figure 3 the total vitamin C found does not add up to 100%, this shows that the water measurements are not valid. However they are reliable, as each repeated tests resulted in a similar percentage. The steaming and boiling methods did come close, but the error was failing to consider the different amounts of water used, and how this would impact the results. The microwave method used a much smaller amount of water (80mL) compared with steaming (500mL) and boiling (2000mL). This shows the microwave water was much more concentrated in vitamin C. Adding less water to the iodine indicator solution when testing may overcome this problem. Another, and probably more effective solution, would be to use equal amounts of water in each cooking method.
One of the major difficulties during the experiment was the accuracy of recording the vitamin C loss. Relying on how much colour is lost from the iodine indicator solution (shades of purple) doesn’t provide any way of plotting the results on a graph. To solve this problem a colour indication sheet was produced. Using children’s vitamin C tablets containing100mg of vitamin C per tablet, four colour indications were made: 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. This colour indicator sheet worked well, however it still lacked accuracy. This problem was solved by creating four more colour indications: 12.5%, 37.5%, 62.5% and 87.5%.
Another problem encountered was when making the iodine indicator solution. The instructions stated to add 10 drops of the cornflour and water mixture (after boiling) to 75ml of water. This did not work, as each time a drop of cornflour mixture fell into the water it formed into a solid ball. The mixture also formed in to a solid jelly-like substance if left to cool. This problem was overcome this by adding the cornflour mixture first, and then slowly pouring in warm water.
Conclusion
The above experiment investigated the optimal cooking method to retain vitamin C in broccoli. The results were as predicted, with the microwave being the most effective method. Although the tests on the water were invalid, the results from the broccoli alone are reliable enough to be valid. Overall the results support my hypothesis, however further tests measuring other vegetables would be needed to observe how their vitamin C content reacts to these cooking methods.
References
Bender, D.A. (2005). Cooking, loss of nutrients, a dictionary of food and nutrition. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O39-cookinglossofnutrients.html
Brown, A. (2008). Understanding food, principles & preparation. Belmont, CA. Thomson Wadsworth
Effects of cooking on foods (Health and Yoga.com). [n.d.]. Retrieved from http://www.healthandyoga.com/html/food/effect.html
Learn about food and health, Science Made Simple. (2006). Do different varieties of the same fruit have the same level of vitamin C?. Retrieved from http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/nutrition_projects.html
Nutrition Data, know what you eat. (2009). Foods highest in vitamin C. Retrieved from http://www.nutritiondata.com/foods-011101000000000000000-w.html
Senson, C. (2002, July 2). Boiling veggies too long causes vitamin loss; Nutrition. The Hamilton Spectator. Retrieved from http://kx7gx4pm8t.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Boiling+veggies+too+long+causes+vitamin+loss%3B+Nutrition&rft.jtitle=The+Spectator&rft.au=Christine+Senson&rft.date=2002-07-02&rft.issn=1189-9417&rft.spage=E.09&rft.externalDBID=UALI&rft.externalDocID=451758171
Stewart, C.P. (1946). Proceedings of the nutrition society: Cambridge University Press. (4), 164-165
Thompson, K. (2002, April 4). Research has green appeal - project increases vitamin C in broccoli. The Toronto Star.
Appendix
Vitamin C Remaining in Broccoli
Cooking Method Time cooked (minutes) Amount of water used (mL) Amount of broccoli (grams) Test One Results Test Two Results Test Three Results Average
Raw/none 0 0 100 60 62.5 60 60.83
Steaming 5 500 100 85 75 75 78.33
Boiling 5 2000 100 60 55 70 61.67
Microwave 5 80 100 95 87.5 95 92.50
Amount of Vitamin C in Water
Cooking Method Time cooked (minutes) Amount of water used (mL) Amount of broccoli (grams) Test One Results Test Two Results Test Three Results Average
Raw/none 0 0 100 n/a n/a n/a n/a
Steaming 5 500 100 30 25 20 25.00
Boiling 5 2000 100 35 25 20 26.67
Microwave 5 80 100 70 70 95 78.33
The Negative Effects of Food Additives
Food additives can cause many negative side effects, from behavioural problems to allergies or intolerances. Infants, children and those suffering from hyperactive disorders such as ADHD are particularly vulnerable. Over the last couple of generations food intolerances and depression have become increasingly more common. The use of controversial additives like MSG and aspartame has skyrocketed. However there are a number of natural alternatives to synthetic additives. For these reasons, the safety of artificial additives has been under scrutiny and their use questioned.
Many parents, doctors and scientists strongly believe there is a link between food additives and hyperactivity or learning disorders in children. Others do not agree. Extensive tests are carried out by the Food Standards Australia New Zealand before any food additive is deemed safe for consumption. Trials on exposure are also completed to set specific daily intake limits over a lifetime. (The official shoppers guide to food additives and labels, 2002, p.40). Only a small percentage of the population experience adverse reactions to food additives. (The official shoppers guide to food additives and labels, 2002, p.42). Yet Dr Ben Feingold, an allergist, strongly believes from his own observations that hyperactivity and learning disabilities in children are often cause by artificial colours and flavours. (Jacobson, 1976)
A recent study conducted at the University of Southamptom by Professor Jim Stevenson tested a variety of common artificial colours and the widely used preservative, sodium benzoate. The subjects were a group of 153 three-year-olds and 144 eight-year-olds. The children were observed through a range of environments by parents, teachers and researchers. The results showed increased hyperactivity and decreased concentration. The outcomes of this study have prompted authorities in the UK to ban six artificial colours which were included in the test (Robinson, 2008). Despite this, these colours are still considered safe in Australia. Behavioural problems however, are not the only side effects of additives.
The World Health Organisation estimates up to 20-30% of children with asthma react to sulphites. However Dengate (2007) states that Australian research shows reactions are more than 65% for asthmatic children. When asthma is triggered by food, it is usually due to additives (Asthma Foundation NSW, n.d.). Effects are normally delayed, resulting in irritable airways which can bring on asthma when exposed to triggers such as exercise, cold air, or a cold or flu. This can make it difficult to identify the cause. Generally asthmatics won’t make the connection between their symptoms and sulphites. Asthmatics can also be susceptible to MSG, salicylates and benzoates; particularly sodium benzoate (211).
Food Standards Australia New Zealand states that evidence showing MSG to cause or contribute to asthma attacks is inconclusive. The only verified side effects are bronchospasms in those who are severely asthmatic (Monosodium glutamate, a safety assessment, 2003). However sensitivities to food additives can contribute to asthmatic symptoms. These intolerances cause muscular contractions, consequently resulting in bronchospasms (Children asthma statistics and food intolerance in children, n.d.). In fact it’s not only asthmatics that experience negative reactions to MSG.
Two additives which are constantly causing debate on safety are aspartame and monosodium glutamate (MSG). Aspartame is made from aspartic acid and phenylalanine, two amino acids. It is used as an alternative to sugar which is low in calories. The World Health Organisation and various other expert committees assure the public aspartame has been rigorously tested, concluding it is completely safe (Lukachko, 1999). However the University of Liverpool conducted a two year study which would suggest otherwise. Their research found that common additives, aspartame, MSG and artificial colours brilliant blue and quinoline yellow affect signaling systems and stopped nerve cells growing in mice. This may seriously effect the development of the nervous system (Lawrence,2005).
MSG is used to enhance the flavour of certain foods (Brown, 2008). It is made from amino acid and glutamic acid. The use of MSG is very controversial, even though governments around the globe declare MSG to be safe. The US Food and Drug Administration conducted tests in 1958, 1991 and 1998 finding no connection between MSG and adverse reactions (Renton, 2005). Food Standards Australia New Zealand believe that less than one percent of the population may have a mild reaction to MSG with no long term effects. This would be argued by the countless people who are sensitive, or allergic to MSG.
Many people report reactions after consuming MSG such as: rashes, itching, migraines, headaches, asthma, chest tightness, heart palpitations, irritability and sleep disturbance (Dengate, 2007). This has lead to the common phrase, “Chinese restaurant syndrome”. Unfortunately most people are unaware of the commonly packaged foods MSG is included in, for instance: flavoured potato chips, flavoured savoury cracker snacks, salt seasonings, powder seasonings and sauces. Many of these foods are consumed by children, who are much more vulnerable to the side effects. This is typified by the inability for the immature digestive system to effectively break down chemicals. It is evident that, along with other artificial additives, MSG intolerance is quite common.
Food additives are not only causing adverse effects in children and those with medical issues; healthy adults also experience negative symptoms. Along with the increasing use of food additives, intolerances are on the rise. Certain additives such as MSG and sulfites are toxic to the gastrointestinal tract, causing unpleasant symptoms such as irritable bowel syndrome. Food intolerances can mimic an allergy; however allergies require an immune system (IgE) response, where food intolerance is a sensitivity or inability to adequately digest a food. These intolerances or sensitivities can lead to a range of health problems, including depression.
Since the increased availability of processed food began in the 1970’s, depression has become more common in developed countries. One in ten adults in Australia will experience some form of depression. In 2002 a medical journal published a study of a 25-year-old man who cured his depression by eliminated all food additives from his diet. A double blind placebo test confirmed his severe sensitivity to food additives (Dengate, 2009). Another study which supports these findings was conducted on 3,500 subjects at the University College London. Researchers found a 60% increased risk in depression for those who consumed too much processed foods compared to those on a healthy diet (Sad Food Choices, 2010). The question is, with all this evidence coming forward, why are additives so widely used.
The Food Standards states, like the food we eat, additives are made from chemical substances. Our body cannot differentiate between a chemical from food, or a chemical from an additive (Food Additives, 2010). Most food additives have complex names, including letters from the Greek alphabet. This can make it very confusing, so each additive is assigned a number. Labels are required to include all additives by law. They must include the class and number only, not the actual name of the particular additive, thickener (1422) for example.
Australia uses over 300 different food additives, most which are synthetic (Dengate, 2007). The most commonly used food additives include colours, flavours, antioxidants, preservatives, emulsifiers, thickeners, stabilisers, flavour enhancers, gelling agents and sweeteners. Food additives are used to enhance the flavour, texture or appearance of food and to prolong shelf life. Although it is necessary to include many additives in processed foods, the increasing use of colours and flavours purely for attractiveness seems to carry more risks than benefits.
A 2007 UK study found common preservative sodium benzoate (211) can cause cell damage and illness. Peter Piper a professor of biotechnology and molecular biology at Sheffield University discovered that this preservative caused serious damage to living cells. The tests showed sodium benzoate’s ability to destroy DNA in the mitochondria; these cells absorb oxygen to provide energy. Parkinson’s disease and many neuro-degenerative diseases are linked to damage of the mitochondria. Sodium benzoate is used in many soft drinks as a preservative, Professor Piper recommends parents avoid allowing their children to consume this preservative. He also believes food industry’s testing is outdated, and although they will state sodium benzoate has passed in depth trials, there is a big difference between the abilities now and 50 years ago (Soft drink additive damages DNA, 2007). This might not be the only reason to avoid soft drinks, as well as sodium benzoate soft drinks contain a cocktail of artificial colours.
The Australian Food and Grocery Council argue that colours which are approved in Australia serve a very important purpose; they do not cause any adverse effects to consumers. Artificial colours enhance the naturally occurring colours. Because artificial colours are stable, predictable and have intense pigments, they take preference over natural colours. (Food colouring, n.d.). However studies are sowing otherwise.
According to Professor Jim Stevenson there is now clear evidence that the following food additives negatively effect a child’s behaviour and should be avoided: tartrazine (E102), quinoline yellow (E104), sunset yellow (E110), carmoisine (E122), ponceau 4R (E124), allura red (E129) and sodium benzoate (E211). (ScienceDaily, 2007). Dr Brian McDonogh, who is an expert in nutrition and ADHD, also with over 20 years experience in medicine, disagrees with the overuse of additives in children’s food. He states “The only reason they are added, is because they make foods visually more appealing and taste artificially more attractive.” (Watts, 2008, p 2). This is supported by the recent consumer avoidance of artificial colours, showing natural alternatives are preferred.
Natural colours can be derived from many plant sources, including: berries, beetroot, alfalfa grass, spinach, carrot, prawns, eggs and turmeric, to name a few. Other natural additives include sugar, honey, alcohol, salt and antioxidants, which can be used as preservatives (Dweck, n.d.). Many companies are now giving in to public pressure by removing artificial additives or replacing them with natural alternatives.
We are now seeing numerous studies and trials which are proving what parents have known for decades. Food additives make a significant difference to their child’s behaviour and learning ability, while other sufferers will argue the Food Standards decisions regarding their safety. As the public become more aware of adverse effects food additives can cause, the demand for natural colours, preservative and flavours will continue to rise. Unfortunately Australia appears to be a little further behind with many colours still deemed safe, yet banned in other countries. The most effective way for consumers to change this, is through what they choose to buy.
References
Anonymous, (2007). Food additives under fire. Food in Canada, 67(8), 8.
Anonymous. (2010, March). Sad food choices. Joe Weider's Muscle & Fitness, 71(3), 50. Retrieved May 7, 2010, from Health Module. (Document ID: 1959543221).
Brown, A. (2008). Understanding food, principles & preparation. Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth
Children asthma statistics and food intolerance in children. [n.d.]. Retrieved from the Allergy and Immune System Web site: http://allergyimmune.com/asthma/children-asthma-statistics-food-intolerance-children
Dengate, S. (2007, January).Food additives and asthma. Food Intolerance Network. Retrieved from http://www.fedupwithfoodadditives.info/factsheets/Factasthma.htm
Dengate, S.. (2009). Food and depression. Australian Certified Organic Magazine. Autumn, 22-23.
Dengate, S. (2010, February).MSG, flavour enhancers and natural glutamates. Food Intolerance Network. Retrieved from http://www.fedupwithfoodadditives.info/factsheets/FactMSG.htm#avoid
Dweck, A, C. (n.d.).Natural preservatives. Natural Ingredient. Retrieved from http://www.naturalingredient.org/Articles/Natural_Preservatives_original.pdf
Emerton, V. (2008). Food colours. Surrey, UK: Letterhead Publishing.
Food additives linked to hyperactivity in children, study shows. (Sep. 10, 2007). ScienceDaily. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070909202847.htm
Food. [n.d.]. Retrieved from the Asthma Foundation New South Wales Web site: http://www.asthmansw.org.au/content.cfm?id=2179
Food colouring. [n.d]. Retrieved from the Australian Food and Grocery Council. Web site:
http://www.afgc.org.au/health-and-nutrition/food-issues/food-colouring.html
Food Standards Australia New Zealand. [n.d.]. Available from http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/
Food Standards Australia New Zealand. (2003, June). Monosodium Glutamate, A Safety Assessment. Technical report series no. 20. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/MSG%20Technical%20Report.pdf
Jacobson, M.F. (1976). Eater’s digest, the consumer’s factbook of food additives. USA: Doubleday & Company, Inc.
Lawrence, F. (2005, December 21). Combining food additives may be harmful, say researchers. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,1671688,00.html
Lukachko, A. (1999, January 28).ACSH debunks internet health hoax. American Council on Science and Health. Retrieved from http://www.acsh.org/healthissues/newsID.265/healthissue_detail.asp
MSG in food. [n.d.]. Retrieved from the Food Standards Australia New Zealand Web site: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/scienceandeducation/factsheets/factsheets2008/msginfood.cfm
The natural food colours association [n.d.]. Retrieved from Natural Food Colours Association Web site: http://www.natcol.org/chart.htm
The official shoppers guide to food additives and labels. (2002). Sydney, NSW: Murdoch Books.
Renton, A. (2005, July 10). If MSG is so bad for you, why doesn’t everyone in Asia have a headache?. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2005/jul/10/foodanddrink.features3
Robinson, A. (2008, September 9). Dangerous additives banned in UK, not here. Babble. Retrieved from http://www.babble.com.au/2008/09/09/dangerous-food-additives-banned-in-uk-not-here/
Watts, M.. (2008, September). Food for thought. Mental Health Today,10-3. Retrieved May 6, 2010, from ProQuest Health and Medical Complete. (Document ID: 1568361661).
Many parents, doctors and scientists strongly believe there is a link between food additives and hyperactivity or learning disorders in children. Others do not agree. Extensive tests are carried out by the Food Standards Australia New Zealand before any food additive is deemed safe for consumption. Trials on exposure are also completed to set specific daily intake limits over a lifetime. (The official shoppers guide to food additives and labels, 2002, p.40). Only a small percentage of the population experience adverse reactions to food additives. (The official shoppers guide to food additives and labels, 2002, p.42). Yet Dr Ben Feingold, an allergist, strongly believes from his own observations that hyperactivity and learning disabilities in children are often cause by artificial colours and flavours. (Jacobson, 1976)
A recent study conducted at the University of Southamptom by Professor Jim Stevenson tested a variety of common artificial colours and the widely used preservative, sodium benzoate. The subjects were a group of 153 three-year-olds and 144 eight-year-olds. The children were observed through a range of environments by parents, teachers and researchers. The results showed increased hyperactivity and decreased concentration. The outcomes of this study have prompted authorities in the UK to ban six artificial colours which were included in the test (Robinson, 2008). Despite this, these colours are still considered safe in Australia. Behavioural problems however, are not the only side effects of additives.
The World Health Organisation estimates up to 20-30% of children with asthma react to sulphites. However Dengate (2007) states that Australian research shows reactions are more than 65% for asthmatic children. When asthma is triggered by food, it is usually due to additives (Asthma Foundation NSW, n.d.). Effects are normally delayed, resulting in irritable airways which can bring on asthma when exposed to triggers such as exercise, cold air, or a cold or flu. This can make it difficult to identify the cause. Generally asthmatics won’t make the connection between their symptoms and sulphites. Asthmatics can also be susceptible to MSG, salicylates and benzoates; particularly sodium benzoate (211).
Food Standards Australia New Zealand states that evidence showing MSG to cause or contribute to asthma attacks is inconclusive. The only verified side effects are bronchospasms in those who are severely asthmatic (Monosodium glutamate, a safety assessment, 2003). However sensitivities to food additives can contribute to asthmatic symptoms. These intolerances cause muscular contractions, consequently resulting in bronchospasms (Children asthma statistics and food intolerance in children, n.d.). In fact it’s not only asthmatics that experience negative reactions to MSG.
Two additives which are constantly causing debate on safety are aspartame and monosodium glutamate (MSG). Aspartame is made from aspartic acid and phenylalanine, two amino acids. It is used as an alternative to sugar which is low in calories. The World Health Organisation and various other expert committees assure the public aspartame has been rigorously tested, concluding it is completely safe (Lukachko, 1999). However the University of Liverpool conducted a two year study which would suggest otherwise. Their research found that common additives, aspartame, MSG and artificial colours brilliant blue and quinoline yellow affect signaling systems and stopped nerve cells growing in mice. This may seriously effect the development of the nervous system (Lawrence,2005).
MSG is used to enhance the flavour of certain foods (Brown, 2008). It is made from amino acid and glutamic acid. The use of MSG is very controversial, even though governments around the globe declare MSG to be safe. The US Food and Drug Administration conducted tests in 1958, 1991 and 1998 finding no connection between MSG and adverse reactions (Renton, 2005). Food Standards Australia New Zealand believe that less than one percent of the population may have a mild reaction to MSG with no long term effects. This would be argued by the countless people who are sensitive, or allergic to MSG.
Many people report reactions after consuming MSG such as: rashes, itching, migraines, headaches, asthma, chest tightness, heart palpitations, irritability and sleep disturbance (Dengate, 2007). This has lead to the common phrase, “Chinese restaurant syndrome”. Unfortunately most people are unaware of the commonly packaged foods MSG is included in, for instance: flavoured potato chips, flavoured savoury cracker snacks, salt seasonings, powder seasonings and sauces. Many of these foods are consumed by children, who are much more vulnerable to the side effects. This is typified by the inability for the immature digestive system to effectively break down chemicals. It is evident that, along with other artificial additives, MSG intolerance is quite common.
Food additives are not only causing adverse effects in children and those with medical issues; healthy adults also experience negative symptoms. Along with the increasing use of food additives, intolerances are on the rise. Certain additives such as MSG and sulfites are toxic to the gastrointestinal tract, causing unpleasant symptoms such as irritable bowel syndrome. Food intolerances can mimic an allergy; however allergies require an immune system (IgE) response, where food intolerance is a sensitivity or inability to adequately digest a food. These intolerances or sensitivities can lead to a range of health problems, including depression.
Since the increased availability of processed food began in the 1970’s, depression has become more common in developed countries. One in ten adults in Australia will experience some form of depression. In 2002 a medical journal published a study of a 25-year-old man who cured his depression by eliminated all food additives from his diet. A double blind placebo test confirmed his severe sensitivity to food additives (Dengate, 2009). Another study which supports these findings was conducted on 3,500 subjects at the University College London. Researchers found a 60% increased risk in depression for those who consumed too much processed foods compared to those on a healthy diet (Sad Food Choices, 2010). The question is, with all this evidence coming forward, why are additives so widely used.
The Food Standards states, like the food we eat, additives are made from chemical substances. Our body cannot differentiate between a chemical from food, or a chemical from an additive (Food Additives, 2010). Most food additives have complex names, including letters from the Greek alphabet. This can make it very confusing, so each additive is assigned a number. Labels are required to include all additives by law. They must include the class and number only, not the actual name of the particular additive, thickener (1422) for example.
Australia uses over 300 different food additives, most which are synthetic (Dengate, 2007). The most commonly used food additives include colours, flavours, antioxidants, preservatives, emulsifiers, thickeners, stabilisers, flavour enhancers, gelling agents and sweeteners. Food additives are used to enhance the flavour, texture or appearance of food and to prolong shelf life. Although it is necessary to include many additives in processed foods, the increasing use of colours and flavours purely for attractiveness seems to carry more risks than benefits.
A 2007 UK study found common preservative sodium benzoate (211) can cause cell damage and illness. Peter Piper a professor of biotechnology and molecular biology at Sheffield University discovered that this preservative caused serious damage to living cells. The tests showed sodium benzoate’s ability to destroy DNA in the mitochondria; these cells absorb oxygen to provide energy. Parkinson’s disease and many neuro-degenerative diseases are linked to damage of the mitochondria. Sodium benzoate is used in many soft drinks as a preservative, Professor Piper recommends parents avoid allowing their children to consume this preservative. He also believes food industry’s testing is outdated, and although they will state sodium benzoate has passed in depth trials, there is a big difference between the abilities now and 50 years ago (Soft drink additive damages DNA, 2007). This might not be the only reason to avoid soft drinks, as well as sodium benzoate soft drinks contain a cocktail of artificial colours.
The Australian Food and Grocery Council argue that colours which are approved in Australia serve a very important purpose; they do not cause any adverse effects to consumers. Artificial colours enhance the naturally occurring colours. Because artificial colours are stable, predictable and have intense pigments, they take preference over natural colours. (Food colouring, n.d.). However studies are sowing otherwise.
According to Professor Jim Stevenson there is now clear evidence that the following food additives negatively effect a child’s behaviour and should be avoided: tartrazine (E102), quinoline yellow (E104), sunset yellow (E110), carmoisine (E122), ponceau 4R (E124), allura red (E129) and sodium benzoate (E211). (ScienceDaily, 2007). Dr Brian McDonogh, who is an expert in nutrition and ADHD, also with over 20 years experience in medicine, disagrees with the overuse of additives in children’s food. He states “The only reason they are added, is because they make foods visually more appealing and taste artificially more attractive.” (Watts, 2008, p 2). This is supported by the recent consumer avoidance of artificial colours, showing natural alternatives are preferred.
Natural colours can be derived from many plant sources, including: berries, beetroot, alfalfa grass, spinach, carrot, prawns, eggs and turmeric, to name a few. Other natural additives include sugar, honey, alcohol, salt and antioxidants, which can be used as preservatives (Dweck, n.d.). Many companies are now giving in to public pressure by removing artificial additives or replacing them with natural alternatives.
We are now seeing numerous studies and trials which are proving what parents have known for decades. Food additives make a significant difference to their child’s behaviour and learning ability, while other sufferers will argue the Food Standards decisions regarding their safety. As the public become more aware of adverse effects food additives can cause, the demand for natural colours, preservative and flavours will continue to rise. Unfortunately Australia appears to be a little further behind with many colours still deemed safe, yet banned in other countries. The most effective way for consumers to change this, is through what they choose to buy.
References
Anonymous, (2007). Food additives under fire. Food in Canada, 67(8), 8.
Anonymous. (2010, March). Sad food choices. Joe Weider's Muscle & Fitness, 71(3), 50. Retrieved May 7, 2010, from Health Module. (Document ID: 1959543221).
Brown, A. (2008). Understanding food, principles & preparation. Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth
Children asthma statistics and food intolerance in children. [n.d.]. Retrieved from the Allergy and Immune System Web site: http://allergyimmune.com/asthma/children-asthma-statistics-food-intolerance-children
Dengate, S. (2007, January).Food additives and asthma. Food Intolerance Network. Retrieved from http://www.fedupwithfoodadditives.info/factsheets/Factasthma.htm
Dengate, S.. (2009). Food and depression. Australian Certified Organic Magazine. Autumn, 22-23.
Dengate, S. (2010, February).MSG, flavour enhancers and natural glutamates. Food Intolerance Network. Retrieved from http://www.fedupwithfoodadditives.info/factsheets/FactMSG.htm#avoid
Dweck, A, C. (n.d.).Natural preservatives. Natural Ingredient. Retrieved from http://www.naturalingredient.org/Articles/Natural_Preservatives_original.pdf
Emerton, V. (2008). Food colours. Surrey, UK: Letterhead Publishing.
Food additives linked to hyperactivity in children, study shows. (Sep. 10, 2007). ScienceDaily. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070909202847.htm
Food. [n.d.]. Retrieved from the Asthma Foundation New South Wales Web site: http://www.asthmansw.org.au/content.cfm?id=2179
Food colouring. [n.d]. Retrieved from the Australian Food and Grocery Council. Web site:
http://www.afgc.org.au/health-and-nutrition/food-issues/food-colouring.html
Food Standards Australia New Zealand. [n.d.]. Available from http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/
Food Standards Australia New Zealand. (2003, June). Monosodium Glutamate, A Safety Assessment. Technical report series no. 20. Retrieved May 8, 2010, from http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/MSG%20Technical%20Report.pdf
Jacobson, M.F. (1976). Eater’s digest, the consumer’s factbook of food additives. USA: Doubleday & Company, Inc.
Lawrence, F. (2005, December 21). Combining food additives may be harmful, say researchers. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,1671688,00.html
Lukachko, A. (1999, January 28).ACSH debunks internet health hoax. American Council on Science and Health. Retrieved from http://www.acsh.org/healthissues/newsID.265/healthissue_detail.asp
MSG in food. [n.d.]. Retrieved from the Food Standards Australia New Zealand Web site: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/scienceandeducation/factsheets/factsheets2008/msginfood.cfm
The natural food colours association [n.d.]. Retrieved from Natural Food Colours Association Web site: http://www.natcol.org/chart.htm
The official shoppers guide to food additives and labels. (2002). Sydney, NSW: Murdoch Books.
Renton, A. (2005, July 10). If MSG is so bad for you, why doesn’t everyone in Asia have a headache?. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2005/jul/10/foodanddrink.features3
Robinson, A. (2008, September 9). Dangerous additives banned in UK, not here. Babble. Retrieved from http://www.babble.com.au/2008/09/09/dangerous-food-additives-banned-in-uk-not-here/
Watts, M.. (2008, September). Food for thought. Mental Health Today,10-3. Retrieved May 6, 2010, from ProQuest Health and Medical Complete. (Document ID: 1568361661).
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